Understanding variation in impacts from private protected areas across regions and protection mechanisms to inform organizational practices.

Private land protection is an important and growing tool to address biodiversity loss and climate change. Thus, better empirical evidence on the effectiveness of private land protection and organizational practices, such as targeting of lands for protection and choice of protection mechanism (i.e., fee simple land acquisition and conservation easements), is needed. We addressed this gap by estimating the impacts of The Nature Conservancy's (TNC) (a large nongovernmental organization with relatively decentralized management) conservation land acquisitions and easements from 1988 to 2016 in three regions of the United States (Mid-Atlantic, New England and New York, and California). We estimated impact in terms of avoided conversion by comparing natural land cover on 3179 protected parcels with matched unprotected parcels. Nineteen of 21 ecoregional plans used threats of agriculture and development to identify priorities for protection. When regions and protection mechanisms were pooled, on average there was no evidence of avoided conversion from 1988 to 2016. Accounting for mechanisms, TNC land acquisitions avoided conversion and easements did not. TNC's easements on parcels acquired by conservation partners did avoid conversion. Limitations of these results include focus on a single measure of impact, inability to capture future avoided conversion, and low land cover change accuracy in California. Our results suggest that private land protection managers who seek to avoid land conversion in the near to medium term should increase focus on areas with higher threats. Special attention should be paid to strengthening accountability and the role of partners, improving or clarifying how easements are used, and facilitating the flow of resources to work with the greatest potential impact.

Comprensión de la variación en el impacto de las áreas protegidas privadas sobre las regiones y los mecanismos de protección para guiar las prácticas organizativas Resumen La protección de terreno privado es una herramienta importante, aunque su naturaleza voluntaria puede sesgar la protección hacia parcelas menos amenazadas­lo que resulta en que la conversión no se evite o se evite muy poco. Además, muchos programas de protección privada tienen una supervisión limitada y pocos reportes de sus resultados. Por lo tanto, se necesitan mejores evidencias empíricas de la efectividad de la protección en suelo privado y las prácticas organizativas, como el enfoque en tierras para protección y la selección de los mecanismos de protección (adquisición de terrenos a título oneroso y servidumbres de conservación). Abordamos esta brecha con la estimación de impactos de las adquisiciones de suelo de The Nature Conservancy (TNC, una gran organización no gubernamental con un manejo relativamente descentralizado) y las servidumbres implementadas entre 1988 y 2016 en tres regiones de los Estados Unidos: Atlántico Medio, Nueva Inglaterra y Nueva York, y California. Estimamos el impacto en términos de la conversión que se evitó al comparar la cobertura de suelo en 3,179 parcelas protegidas con parcelas desprotegidas equivalentes. Diecinueve de los 21 planes eco­regionales usaron las amenazas a la agricultura y al desarrollo para identificar las prioridades de protección. Cuando agrupamos las regiones y los mecanismos de protección, en promedio no hubo impacto alguno. Si se consideran los mecanismos, las adquisiciones de suelo de la TNC tuvieron un impacto mientras que las servidumbres no. Las servidumbres de la TNC en las parcelas adquiridas por socios de conservación sí tuvieron un impacto, aunque esta manera de proteger sólo se presentó en las regiones del Atlántico Medio y de Nueva Inglaterra y Nueva York. Nuestros resultados sugieren que la protección privada, especialmente mediante servidumbres, puede estar sesgada hacia suelos no amenazados. Los gestores que buscan evitar la conversión del suelo a mediano o corto plazo deberían enfocarse más en las áreas con más amenazas. Se debería prestar especial atención al fortalecimiento del papel y las responsabilidades de los socios, a la mejora o aclaración de cómo se usan las servidumbres y la facilitación del flujo de recursos para trabajar con el mayor impacto potencial.

Contributions of the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems to risk-based design and management of protected and conserved areas in Africa.

Protected and conserved areas (PCAs) are key ecosystem management tools for conserving biodiversity and sustaining ecosystem services and social cobenefits. As countries adopt a 30% target for protection of land and sea under the Global Biodiversity Framework of the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, a critical question emerging is, which 30%? A risk-based answer to this question is that the 30% that returns the greatest reductions in risks of species extinction and ecosystem collapse should be protected. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List protocols provide practical methods for assessing these risks. All species, including humans, depend on the integrity of ecosystems for their well-being and survival. Africa is strategically important for ecosystem management due to convergence of high ecosystem diversity, intense pressures, and high levels of human dependency on nature. We reviewed the outcomes (e.g., applications of ecosystem red-list assessments to protected-area design, conservation planning, and management) of a symposium at the inaugural African Protected Areas Congress convened to discuss roles of the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems in the design and management of PCAs. Recent progress was made in ecosystem assessment, with 920 ecosystem types assessed against the IUCN Red List criteria across 21 countries. Although these ecosystems spanned a diversity of environments across the continent, the greatest thematic gaps were for freshwater, marine, and subterranean realms, and large geographic gaps existed in North Africa and parts of West and East Africa. Assessment projects were implemented by a diverse community of government agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and researchers. The assessments have influenced policy and management by informing extensions to and management of formal protected area networks supporting decision-making for sustainable development, and informing ecosystem conservation and threat abatement within boundaries of PCAs and in surrounding landscapes and seascapes. We recommend further integration of risk assessments in environmental policy and enhanced investment in ecosystem red-list assessment to fill current gaps.

Contribuciones de la Lista Roja de Ecosistemas de la UICN al diseño y manejo basados en riesgos de las áreas conservadas y protegidas en África Resumen Las áreas protegidas y conservadas (APC) son herramientas clave del manejo de ecosistemas para conservar la biodiversidad y mantener los servicios ambientales y los cobeneficios sociales. Conforme los países adoptan un objetivo de 30% para la protección del suelo y el mar bajo el Marco Mundial de Biodiversidad de la Convención sobre la Diversidad Biológica de las Naciones Unidas, surge una pregunta crítica: ¿cuál 30%? Una respuesta basada en riesgos a esta pregunta es que se debe proteger el 30% que rinda la mayor reducción del riesgo de extinción de especies y del colapso del ecosistema. Los protocolos de la Lista Roja de la Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza (UICN) proporcionan métodos prácticos para evaluar estos riesgos. Todas las especies, incluidos los humanos, dependen de la integridad de los ecosistemas para su bienestar y supervivencia. África tiene una importancia estratégica para el manejo de ecosistemas debido a la convergencia de una gran diversidad de ecosistemas, presiones intensas y un nivel elevado de dependencia del humano hacia la naturaleza. Revisamos los resultados (p. ej.: aplicaciones de las valoraciones de las listas rojas de ecosistemas al diseño de áreas protegidas, planeación de la conservación y manejo) de un simposio en el primer Congreso de Áreas Protegidas Africanas convocado para discutir el papel de la Lista Roja de Ecosistemas de la UICN en el diseño y manejo de las APC. Existen avances recientes en la evaluación de los ecosistemas, con 920 tipos de ecosistemas evaluados bajo los criterios de la Lista Roja de la UICN en 21 países. Mientras estos ecosistemas comprenden una diversidad de ambientes en todo el continente, los principales vacíos temáticos los encontramos para los dominios subterráneos, de agua dulce y marina, además de que existe un gran vacío geográfico en el norte de África y en partes del este y oeste africano. Los proyectos de evaluación fueron implementados por una comunidad diversa de agencias gubernamentales, organizaciones no gubernamentales e investigadores. La influencia de las evaluaciones sobre las políticas y el manejo se da con la información que proveen a las extensiones y el manejo de las redes de áreas protegidas formales, el apoyo para la toma de decisiones de desarrollo sustentable y la guía para la conservación de ecosistemas y el abatimiento de amenazas dentro de los límites de las APC y en los paisajes terrestres y marinos adyacentes. Recomendamos una mayor integración de las evaluaciones de riesgo dentro de las políticas ambientales y más inversión para las evaluaciones de lista roja de los ecosistemas cubrir los vacíos existentes.

Resource users as land-sea links in coastal and marine socioecological systems.

Coastal zones, which connect terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, are among the most resource-rich regions globally and home to nearly 40% of the global human population. Because human land-based activities can alter natural processes in ways that affect adjacent aquatic ecosystems, land-sea interactions are increasingly recognized as critical to coastal conservation planning and governance. However, the complex socioeconomic dynamics inherent in coastal and marine socioecological systems (SESs) have received little consideration. Drawing on knowledge generalized from long-term studies in Caribbean Nicaragua, we devised a conceptual framework that clarifies the multiple ways socioeconomically driven behavior can link the land and sea. In addition to other ecosystem effects, the framework illustrates how feedbacks resulting from changes to aquatic resources can influence terrestrial resource management decisions and land uses. We assessed the framework by applying it to empirical studies from a variety of coastal SESs. The results suggest its broad applicability and highlighted the paucity of research that explicitly investigates the effects of human behavior on coastal SES dynamics. We encourage researchers and policy makers to consider direct, indirect, and bidirectional cross-ecosystem links that move beyond traditionally recognized land-to-sea processes.

Los Usuarios de Recursos como Conexiones entre la Tierra y el Mar dentro de los Sistemas Socioecológicos Marinos y Costeros Resumen Las zonas costeras, que conectan los ecosistemas terrestres y acuáticos, se encuentran entre las regiones más ricas en recursos a nivel mundial y además albergan a casi el 40% de la población humana de todo el mundo. Ya que las actividades humanas terrestres pueden alterar los procesos naturales de manera que terminan por afectar a los ecosistemas acuáticos adyacentes, cada vez se reconoce más a las interacciones tierra-mar como críticas para la planeación de la conservación y la gestión costera. Sin embargo, las complejas dinámicas socioeconómicas inherentes a los sistemas socioecológicos (SES) marinos y costeros han recibido poca atención. Con el conocimiento generalizado a partir de los estudios a largo plazo realizados en el Caribe de Nicaragua como punto de partida, diseñamos un marco conceptual que clarifica las múltiples formas en las que el comportamiento con origen socioeconómico puede conectar a la tierra y al mar. Sumado a otros efectos de los ecosistemas, el marco conceptual ilustró cómo los comentarios resultantes de los cambios ocurridos en los recursos acuáticos pueden influir sobre las decisiones de manejo de recursos terrestres y de uso de suelo. Evaluamos el marco conceptual mediante su aplicación a los estudios empíricos de una variedad de SES costeros. Los resultados sugirieron su aplicabilidad generalizada y resaltaron la escasez de investigaciones busquen específicamente los efectos del comportamiento humano sobre las dinámicas de los SES costeros. Alentamos a los investigadores y a los formuladores de políticas a considerar las conexiones directas, indirectas y bidireccionales entre ecosistemas que van más allá de los procesos de tierra a mar reconocidos tradicionalmente.

Responses of New Zealand forest birds to management of introduced mammals.

Over the past 1000 years New Zealand has lost 40-50% of its bird species, and over half of these extinctions are attributable to predation by introduced mammals. Populations of many extant forest bird species continue to be depredated by mammals, especially rats, possums, and mustelids. The management history of New Zealand's forests over the past 50 years presents a unique opportunity because a varied program of mammalian predator control has created a replicated management experiment. We conducted a meta-analysis of population-level responses of forest birds to different levels of mammal control recorded across New Zealand. We collected data from 32 uniquely treated sites and 20 extant bird species representing a total of 247 population responses to 3 intensities of invasive mammal control (zero, low, and high). The treatments varied from eradication of invasive mammals via ground-based techniques to periodic suppression of mammals via aerially sown toxin. We modeled population-level responses of birds according to key life history attributes to determine the biological processes that influence species' responses to management. Large endemic species, such as the Kaka (Nestor meridionalis) and New Zealand Pigeon (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae), responded positively at the population level to mammal control in 61 of 77 cases for species ≥20 g compared with 31 positive responses from 78 cases for species <20 g. The Fantail (Rhipidura fuliginosa) and Grey Warbler (Gerygone igata), both shallow endemic species, and 4 nonendemic species (Blackbird [Turdus merula], Chaffinch [Fringilla coelebs], Dunnock [Prunella modularis], and Silvereye [Zosterops lateralis]) that arrived in New Zealand in the last 200 years tended to have slight negative or neutral responses to mammal control (59 of 77 cases). Our results suggest that large, deeply endemic forest birds, especially cavity nesters, are most at risk of further decline in the absence of mammal control and, conversely suggest that 6 species apparently tolerate the presence of invasive mammals and may be sensitive to competition from larger endemic birds.

Respuestas de Aves Habitantes de Bosques Neozelandeses al Manejo de Mamíferos Introducidos Resumen En los últimos 1000 años, Nueva Zelanda ha perdido entre el 40% y 50% de las especies de aves. De estas extinciones, más de la mitad se puede atribuir a la depredación por mamíferos introducidos. Las poblaciones existentes de aves de bosque todavía están siendo depredadas por mamíferos, principalmente ratas, zarigüeyas y mustélidos. La historia de manejo de los bosques en Nueva Zelanda durante los recientes 50 años representa una oportunidad única porque un programa variado de control de mamíferos depredadores ha creado un experimento de manejo replicado. Realizamos un metaanálisis de las respuestas a nivel poblacional de las aves de bosque ante diferentes niveles de control de mamíferos registrados en toda Nueva Zelanda. Recolectamos datos de 32 sitios tratados de manera única y de 20 especies existentes de aves que representan un total de 247 respuestas poblacionales a tres intensidades de control de mamíferos invasores (cero, bajo y alto). Los tratamientos variaron desde la erradicación de los mamíferos invasores por vía de técnicas terrestres hasta la eliminación periódica de los mamíferos por medio de toxinas dispersadas por vía aérea. Modelamos las respuestas a nivel poblacional de las aves de acuerdo con los atributos de historia de vida importantes para determinar los procesos biológicos que influyen sobre las respuestas de las especies al manejo. Las especies endémicas grandes, como la kaka (Nestor meridionalis) y la paloma de Nueva Zelanda (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae), respondieron positivamente a nivel poblacional al control de mamíferos en 61 de los 77 casos para especies con un peso ≥20 g comparado con 31 respuestas positivas de 78 casos para especies con un peso <20 g. El ave cola de abanico (Rhipidura fuliginosa) y la curruca gris (Gerygone igata), ambas especies endémicas someras, junto con cuatro especies no endémicas (el mirlo [Turdus merula], el pinzón [Fringilla coelebs], el acentor [Prunella modularis] y el pájaro de anteojos [Zosterops lateralis]) que arribaron a Nueva Zelanda en los últimos 200 años presentaron una tendencia hacia las respuestas negativas o neutrales al control de mamíferos (59 de 77 casos). Nuestros resultados sugieren que las aves endémicas grandes y que habitan en las profundidades del bosque, especialmente aquellas que anidan en cavidades, tienen el mayor riesgo de vivir una declinación en el futuro si el control de mamíferos se ausenta. A la inversa, nuestros resultados también sugieren que seis especies aparentemente toleran la presencia de mamíferos invasores y podrían ser vulnerables a la competencia generada por aves endémicas de mayor tamaño.

Medical biotechnology as a paradigm for forest restoration and introduction of the transgenic American chestnut.

For over 40 years, biotechnology and genetic engineering (GE) have been used in the development of medicines and biologic agents important in protecting and augmenting human health and have been met with broad public acceptance in the health care arena. GE has also been used to improve and develop plants important to agriculture and forestry, but in these areas, it has often encountered intense opposition that has prevented or delayed the introduction of potentially useful plants. Much of the opposition to GE's application in agriculture and forestry may be driven by concerns that GE plants will serve primarily to encourage the domination of the food and wood products industries by monopolistic corporations or will be disruptive to the environment. But to conflate genetic modifications intended to promote healthy ecosystems or preserve threatened species with GE projects aimed at benefiting corporate agriculture and forestry is misleading and illogical. Further, the pervasive human disruption and damage to forest ecosystems makes it prudent to bring the best that science can offer to the protection and restoration of critical woodland denizens and broader ecosystem health. The notion that minimal human intervention in the forest environment may be the best approach ignores humanity's responsibility to help manage and protect some of the very places that have been most damaged by human intrusion. GE intended to improve forest health should be afforded the same consideration, acceptance, and support as GE intended to improve human health. These efforts should include the use of GE technology such as carefully developed transgenic trees to cure ongoing forest pathogenesis, such as the chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica), which threatens to drive the American chestnut (Castanea dentata) to extinction.

La Biotecnología Médica como Paradigma para la Restauración de Bosques y la Introducción del Castaño Americano Transgénico Resumen Durante más de 40 años, la biotecnología y la ingeniería genética (IG) se han usado en el desarrollo de medicamentos y agentes biológicos importantes para la protección y el aumento de la salud humana, recibiendo una aceptación generalizada del público en el ámbito de la atención médica. La ingeniería genética también ha sido utilizada para mejorar y desarrollar plantas importantes para la agricultura y la silvicultura, pero ha sido en estas áreas en las que con frecuencia se ha enfrentado con una oposición intensa que ha prevenido o retrasado la introducción de plantas potencialmente útiles. La mayor parte de la oposición a la aplicación de la IG en la agricultura y en la silvicultura puede estar dirigida por la inquietud de que las plantas con ingeniería genética servirán principalmente para promover el dominio de las industrias de productos alimenticios y de madera por parte de las compañías monopólicas o que serán perjudiciales para el ambiente. La idea de mezclar las modificaciones genéticas cuya intención es promover los ecosistemas sanos o preservar las especies amenazadas con proyectos de IG enfocados en el beneficio de la agricultura y la silvicultura corporativas es errónea e ilógica. Además, la perturbación humana dominante y el daño a los ecosistemas boscosos hacen que sea prudente traer a la mesa lo mejor que la ciencia puede ofrecer para la protección y restauración de importantes de las zonas boscosas y para una salud ambiental más amplia. El concepto de que la menor intervención humana en el ecosistema boscoso sea la mejor estrategia ignora la responsabilidad que tiene la humanidad para manejar y proteger algunos de los lugares que más han sufrido por la intrusión humana. La ingeniería genética que se plantea mejorar la salud de los bosques debería recibir la misma consideración, aceptación y apoyo que la IG cuya intención es mejorar la salud humana. Estos esfuerzos deberían incluir el uso de la tecnología de la IG, como los árboles transgénicos desarrollados cuidadosamente, para curar las patogénesis persistentes en algunos bosques, como la plaga del castaño (Cryphonectria parasitica), que amenaza con llevar a la extinción al castaño americano (Castanea dentata).

Decision-support tools for dynamic management.

Spatial management is a valuable strategy to advance regional goals for nature conservation, economic development, and human health. One challenge of spatial management is navigating the prioritization of multiple features. This challenge becomes more pronounced in dynamic management scenarios, in which boundaries are flexible in space and time in response to changing biological, environmental, or socioeconomic conditions. To implement dynamic management, decision-support tools are needed to guide spatial prioritization as feature distributions shift under changing conditions. Marxan is a widely applied decision-support tool designed for static management scenarios, but its utility in dynamic management has not been evaluated. EcoCast is a new decision-support tool developed explicitly for the dynamic management of multiple features, but it lacks some of Marxan's functionality. We used a hindcast analysis to compare the capacity of these 2 tools to prioritize 4 marine species in a dynamic management scenario for fisheries sustainability. We successfully configured Marxan to operate dynamically on a daily time scale to resemble EcoCast. The relationship between EcoCast solutions and the underlying species distributions was more linear and less noisy, whereas Marxan solutions had more contrast between waters that were good and poor to fish. Neither decision-support tool clearly outperformed the other; the appropriateness of each depends on management purpose, resource-manager preference, and technological capacity of tool developers. Article impact statement: Marxan can function as a decision-support tool for dynamic management scenarios in which boundaries are flexible in space and time.

Herramientas de Apoyo para la Toma de Decisiones en el Manejo Dinámico Resumen El manejo espacial es una estrategia valiosa para llevar hacia adelante los objetivos regionales para la conservación de la naturaleza, el desarrollo económico y la salud humana. Uno de los retos del manejo espacial es la navegación a través de la priorización de múltiples caracteres. Este reto se vuelve más pronunciado dentro de los escenarios de manejo dinámico, en los cuales los límites son flexibles en el tiempo y en el espacio como respuesta a las cambiantes condiciones biológicas, ambientales o socioeconómicas. Para implementar el manejo dinámico, se necesitan herramientas de apoyo para la toma de decisiones para guiar a la priorización espacial conforme la distribución de los caracteres se modifica bajo condiciones cambiantes. Marxan es una herramienta de apoyo para la toma de decisiones utilizada ampliamente y diseñada para escenarios de manejo estático, pero su utilidad para el manejo dinámico no ha sido evaluada. EcoCast es una nueva herramienta de apoyo para la toma de decisiones desarrollada explícitamente para el manejo dinámico de múltiples caracteres, pero carece de algunas funcionalidades que tiene Marxan. Usamos un análisis de información retrospectiva para comparar la capacidad de estas dos herramientas para priorizar a cuatro especies marinas en un escenario de manejo dinámico con respecto a la sustentabilidad de las pesquerías. Configuramos exitosamente la herramienta Marxan para que operara dinámicamente con respecto a una escala diaria de tiempo y así se asemejara a EcoCast. La relación entre las soluciones de EcoCast y las distribuciones subyacentes de las especies fue más lineal y menos ruidosa, mientras que las soluciones de Marxan tuvieron un mayor contraste entre las aguas que eran buenas y aquellas que eran pobres para los peces. Ninguna de las dos herramientas de apoyo para la toma de decisiones tuvo un mejor desempeño que la otra; la pertinencia de cada una depende del propósito del manejo, la preferencia del administrador de los recursos y la capacidad tecnológica de quienes desarrollan la herramienta.

Long-term spatio-temporal changes in a West African bushmeat trade system.

Landscapes in many developing countries consist of a heterogeneous matrix of mixed agriculture and forest. Many of the generalist species in this matrix are increasingly traded in the bushmeat markets of West and Central Africa. However, to date there has been little quantification of how the spatial configuration of the landscape influences the urban bushmeat trade over time. As anthropogenic landscapes become the face of rural West Africa, understanding the dynamics of these systems has important implications for conservation and landscape management. The bushmeat production of an area is likely to be defined by landscape characteristics such as habitat disturbance, hunting pressure, level of protection, and distance to market. We explored (SSG, tense) the role of these four characteristics in the spatio-temporal dynamics of the commercial bushmeat trade around the city of Kumasi, Ghana, over 27 years (1978 to 2004). We used geographic information system methods to generate maps delineating the spatial characteristics of the landscapes. These data were combined with spatially explicit market data collected in the main fresh bushmeat market in Kumasi to explore the relationship between trade volume (measured in terms of number of carcasses) and landscape characteristics. Over time, rodents, specifically cane rats (Thryonomys swinderianus), became more abundant in the trade relative to ungulates and the catchment area of the bushmeat market expanded. Areas of intermediate disturbance supplied more bushmeat, but protected areas had no effect. Heavily hunted areas showed significant declines in bushmeat supply over time. Our results highlight the role that low intensity, heterogeneous agricultural landscapes can play in providing ecosystem services, such as bushmeat, and therefore the importance of incorporating bushmeat into ecosystem service mapping exercises. Our results also indicate that even where high bushmeat production is possible, current harvest levels may cause wildlife depletion.

Use of monitoring data to support conservation management and policy decisions in Micronesia.

Adaptive management implies a continuous knowledge-based decision-making process in conservation. Yet, the coupling of scientific monitoring and management frameworks remains rare in practice because formal and informal communication pathways are lacking. We examined 4 cases in Micronesia where conservation practitioners are using new knowledge in the form of monitoring data to advance marine conservation. These cases were drawn from projects in Micronesia Challenge jurisdictions that received funding for coupled monitoring-to-management frameworks and encompassed all segments of adaptive management. Monitoring in Helen Reef, Republic of Palau, was catalyzed by coral bleaching and revealed evidence of overfishing that led to increased enforcement and outreach. In Nimpal Channel, Yap, Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), monitoring the recovery of marine food resources after customary restrictions were put in place led to new, more effective enforcement approaches. Monitoring in Laolao Bay, Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, was catalyzed by observable sediment loads from poor land-use practices and resulted in actions that reduced land-based threats, particularly littering and illegal burning, and revealed additional threats from overfishing. Pohnpei (FSM) began monitoring after observed declines in grouper spawning aggregations. This data led to adjusting marine conservation area boundaries and implementing market-based size class restrictions. Two themes emerged from these cases. First, in each case monitoring was conducted in a manner relevant to the social and ecological systems and integrated into the decision-making process. Second, conservation practitioners and scientists in these cases integrated culturally appropriate stakeholder engagement throughout all phases of the adaptive management cycle. More broadly, our study suggests, when describing adaptive management, providing more details on how monitoring and management activities are linked at similar spatial scales and across similar time frames can enhance the application of knowledge.

Applications of very high-resolution imagery in the study and conservation of large predators in the Southern Ocean.

The Southern Ocean is one of the most rapidly changing ecosystems on the planet due to the effects of climate change and commercial fishing for ecologically important krill and fish. Because sea ice loss is expected to be accompanied by declines in krill and fish predators, decoupling the effects of climate and anthropogenic changes on these predator populations is crucial for ecosystem-based management of the Southern Ocean. We reviewed research published from 2007 to 2014 that incorporated very high-resolution satellite imagery to assess distribution, abundance, and effects of climate and other anthropogenic changes on populations of predators in polar regions. Very high-resolution imagery has been used to study 7 species of polar animals in 13 papers, many of which provide methods through which further research can be conducted. Use of very high-resolution imagery in the Southern Ocean can provide a broader understanding of climate and anthropogenic forces on populations and inform management and conservation recommendations. We recommend that conservation biologists continue to integrate high-resolution remote sensing into broad-scale biodiversity and population studies in remote areas, where it can provide much needed detail.

The need to disentangle key concepts from ecosystem-approach jargon.

The ecosystem approach--as endorsed by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CDB) in 2000-is a strategy for holistic, sustainable, and equitable natural resource management, to be implemented via the 12 Malawi Principles. These principles describe the need to manage nature in terms of dynamic ecosystems, while fully engaging with local peoples. It is an ambitious concept. Today, the term is common throughout the research and policy literature on environmental management. However, multiple meanings have been attached to the term, resulting in confusion. We reviewed references to the ecosystem approach from 1957 to 2012 and identified 3 primary uses: as an alternative to ecosystem management or ecosystem-based management; in reference to an integrated and equitable approach to resource management as per the CBD; and as a term signifying a focus on understanding and valuing ecosystem services. Although uses of this term and its variants may overlap in meaning, typically, they do not entirely reflect the ethos of the ecosystem approach as defined by the CBD. For example, there is presently an increasing emphasis on ecosystem services, but focusing on these alone does not promote decentralization of management or use of all forms of knowledge, both of which are integral to the CBD's concept. We highlight that the Malawi Principles are at risk of being forgotten. To better understand these principles, more effort to implement them is required. Such efforts should be evaluated, ideally with comparative approaches, before allowing the CBD's concept of holistic and socially engaged management to be abandoned or superseded. It is possible that attempts to implement all 12 principles together will face many challenges, but they may also offer a unique way to promote holistic and equitable governance of natural resources. Therefore, we believe that the CBD's concept of the ecosystem approach demands more attention.

Development of a natural practice to adapt conservation goals to global change.

Conservation goals at the start of the 21st century reflect a combination of contrasting ideas. Ideal nature is something that is historically intact but also futuristically flexible. Ideal nature is independent from humans, but also, because of the pervasiveness of human impacts, only able to reach expression through human management. These tensions emerge in current management rationales because scientists and managers are struggling to accommodate old and new scientific and cultural thinking, while also maintaining legal mandates from the past and commitments to preservation of individual species in particular places under the stresses of global change. Common management goals (such as integrity, wilderness, resilience), whether they are forward looking and focused on sustainability and change, or backward looking and focused on the persistence and restoration of historic states, tend to create essentialisms about how ecosystems should be. These essentialisms limit the options of managers to accommodate the dynamic, and often novel, response of ecosystems to global change. Essentialisms emerge because there is a tight conceptual coupling of place and historical species composition as an indicator of naturalness (e.g., normal, healthy, independent from humans). Given that change is increasingly the norm and ecosystems evolve in response, the focus on idealized ecosystem states is increasingly unwise and unattainable. To provide more open-ended goals, we propose greater attention be paid to the characteristics of management intervention. We suggest that the way we interact with other species in management and the extent to which those interactions reflect the interactions among other biotic organisms, and also reflect our conservation virtues (e.g., humility, respect), influences our ability to cultivate naturalness on the landscape. We call this goal a natural practice (NP) and propose it as a framework for prioritizing and formulating how, when, and where to intervene in this period of rapid change.

Empirical trials of plant field guides.

We designed 3 image-based field guides to tropical forest plant species in Ghana, Grenada, and Cameroon and tested them with 1095 local residents and 20 botanists in the United Kingdom. We compared users' identification accuracy with different image formats, including drawings, specimen photos, living plant photos, and paintings. We compared users' accuracy with the guides to their accuracy with only their prior knowledge of the flora. We asked respondents to score each format for usability, beauty, and how much they would pay for it. Prior knowledge of plant names was generally low (<22%). With a few exceptions, identification accuracy did not differ significantly among image formats. In Cameroon, users identifying sterile Cola species achieved 46-56% accuracy across formats; identification was most accurate with living plant photos. Botanists in the United Kingdom accurately identified 82-93% of the same Cameroonian species; identification was most accurate with specimens. In Grenada, users accurately identified 74-82% of plants; drawings yielded significantly less accurate identifications than paintings and photos of living plants. In Ghana, users accurately identified 85% of plants. Digital color photos of living plants ranked high for beauty, usability, and what users would pay. Black and white drawings ranked low. Our results show the potential and limitations of the use of field guides and nonspecialists to identify plants, for example, in conservation applications. We recommend authors of plant field guides use the cheapest or easiest illustration format because image type had limited bearing on accuracy; match the type of illustration to the most likely use of the guide for slight improvements in accuracy; avoid black and white formats unless the audience is experienced at interpreting illustrations or keeping costs low is imperative; discourage false-positive identifications, which were common; and encourage users to ask an expert or use a herbarium for groups that are difficult to identify.

Restauración ecllógica:: biodiversidad y conservación / Ecological Restoration:: Biodiversity and Conservation

En este ensayo se compilan los principales conceptos y métodos aplicados en el desarrollo de proyectos de restauración ecológica, haciendo énfasis en la relación entre conservación, biodiversidad y restauración. El trabajo se inicia con las definiciones más comunes y de fácil comprensión y continúa con la explicación de los pasos principales a tener en cuenta en el desarrollo de proyectos de restauración ecológica. Los pasos que se presentan son los más comunes en casi todos los procesos de restauración, pero su aplicación total depende del estado de degradación del ecosistema que se va a restaurar.

In this essay the principal concepts and methods applied on projects aimed at ecological restoration are reviewed, with emphasis on the relationship between conservation, biodiversity and restoration. The most common definitions are provided and the steps to take into account to develop projects on ecological restoration, which will be determined by the level of degradation of the ecosystem to be intervened.

Marine spatial planning (MSP): A first step to ecosystem-based management (EBM) in the Wider Caribbean

The rapid decline of coastal ecosystems of the Wider Caribbean is entering its fifth decade. Some of the best science documenting this decline and its causes has been done by the laboratories of the Association of Marine Laboratories of the Caribbean (AMLC). Alarmed at the trends, Caribbean conservation pioneers established marine protected areas (MPAs) which spread throughout the region. Unfortunately, many have little or no protection and are now known to be too small to be effective in sustaining coastal ecosystems. Marine spatial planning (MSP) holds much promise to encompass the large geographic scales of the ecological processes and human impacts that influence coastal ecosystems and adjacent lands. The AMLC, through the scientific expertise and the national political connections of its member institutions, is well-positioned to help implement a pilot project. MSP a first step in ecosystem-based management and has had considerable success elsewhere. It holds our best chance of sustaining human use and conserving the coral reefs and associated ecosystems. Rev. Biol. Trop. 58 (Suppl. 3): 71-79. Epub 2010 October 01.

La rápida disminución de los ecosistemas costeros del Mar Caribe está entrando en su quinta década. Algunos de los mejores aportes científicos que documentan este descenso y sus causas han sido realizados por los laboratorios de la Asociación de Laboratorios Marinos del Caribe (ALMC). Alarmados por las tendencias, los pioneros de la conservación del Caribe establecieron áreas marinas protegidas (MPAs) que se extendieron por toda la región. Desafortunadamente, muchas de estas áreas tienen poca o ninguna protección y ahora se conoce que son demasiado pequeñas para ser efectivas en el mantenimiento de los ecosistemas costeros. La planificación espacial marina (MSP) es promisoria para englobar las grandes escalas geográficas de los procesos ecológicos y los impactos humanos que influyen en los ecosistemas costeros y las tierras adyacentes. La ALMC, a través de los conocimientos científicos y las conexiones políticas nacionales de los miembros de sus instituciones, está bien posicionada para ayudar a implementar un proyecto piloto. MSP es un primer paso en el manejo de ecosistemas y ha tenido un éxito considerable en otros lugares. La misma nos ofrece la mejor posibilidad del manejo de uso humano sustentable y la conservación de los arrecifes coralinos y ecosistemas asociados.